Mouton Noir

I'm currently taking an online course on biodynamic viticulture and the course came with a super informative introductory course to biodynamic farming. I have previous written about Rudolf Steiner's lectures

Introduction to Biodynamic Farming

Key Concepts:

• Holistic Nutrition: Biodynamic farming aims to nourish the whole human being, not just physically but also spiritually and mentally, by focusing on the vitality and quality of food rather than just its nutritional components.
• Unique Individuality: Each biodynamic farm is treated as a unique entity with its own individuality, integrating plants, animals, and the surrounding environment into a self-sustaining system.

Practices and Principles:

• Quality over Quantity: This approach values the flavour and quality of produce like broccoli, rather than just its yield and nutritional content.
• Vitality through Natural Sources: The growth of plants is supported by living sources like compost rather than mineral or synthetic fertilisers.
• Spiritual Connection: Special preparations made from conscious, spiritual human work enrich the compost, reflecting the belief that the cosmos contributes to the growth process.
• Balancing Forces: The concept of expansion (growth) and contraction (fruit-bearing) in plants is central, emphasising the need for balance for optimal health and nourishment.

Biodynamic Essentials:

Cosmic Sensitivity: Practices include using special preparations as sprays and in compost to sensitize the farm to subtle cosmic influences and using a sowing calendar to align farming activities with cosmic rhythms. Farm as an Organism: Echoing Rudolf Steiner's vision, the farm is seen as a self-contained individuality, aiming to become a self-sustaining entity. Historical and Cultural Context:

Origins and Relevance: Initiated by Rudolf Steiner's lectures in 1924 in response to the decline in seed and plant quality from chemical fertilization, biodynamic farming arose as a counter-movement to the industrialization and conventional practices of agriculture. Anthroposophy Foundation: Steiner's spiritual philosophy, Anthroposophy, underpins biodynamic agriculture, emphasizing a spiritual connection to farming and a holistic approach to human well-being. Modern Implications and Practices:

Sustainable and Community-Centric: Biodynamic farms focus on sustainability, animal welfare, and community involvement, often serving as local hubs for ecological and social sustainability. Recognition and Availability: Biodynamic products, identifiable by the Demeter symbol, are available globally and recognized for their holistic approach to food quality and production. This holistic and spiritually infused approach to agriculture offers an alternative to conventional farming, focusing on the quality of life and sustainability of the farm, the community, and the earth.

Evolution of Terroir Perception:

Old vs. New World Perspectives:

• Traditionally, terroir was an Old World concept, emphasising the influence of the vineyard's physical environment on wine characteristics, or the 'somewhereness' of wine.
• New World producers initially viewed terroir sceptically, considering it a marketing strategy by European winemakers. However, they now acknowledge the importance of terroir in achieving homogeneous grape ripeness and recognising natural variations within vineyards.

Precision Viticulture and Terroir Units:

Adoption of Precision Viticulture:

• New techniques such as precision viticulture allow for the division of vineyards into sub-plots or 'natural terroir units,' enabling targeted interventions and a nuanced understanding of terroir.
• This approach marks a shift from viewing grape growing as a mundane task to appreciating the nuanced role of the vineyard's natural characteristics in shaping wine quality.

Conceptualising Terroir:

Terroir in Old World Wine Laws:

• In regions like France, Italy, and Germany, terroir is a foundational concept, influencing local wine laws and appellations. It fosters a sense of duty among growers to produce wines that are true to their geographical origins and vineyard sites.
• The relationship between soil properties and wine characteristics, such as minerality, is often cited, although the scientific plausibility of direct mineral uptake influencing wine flavour is debated.

Scientific Scrutiny of Terroir:

Challenging the Literalist View:

• Scientists question the literalist theory of terroir, which suggests a direct transfer of flavour compounds from soil to grapes. This view is seen as implausible, considering the known mechanisms of plant physiology and mineral uptake.

Experiments and Views on Mineral Influence:

Randall Grahm’s Experiment:

• The paper discusses an experiment by Randall Grahm, who tested the influence of minerals on wine flavour by directly adding rocks to wine. The experiment demonstrated significant changes in wine characteristics but also highlighted the complexities and limitations of understanding mineral influence in wines.

Divergent Scientific Opinions:

Scepticism Among Viticulturists:

• New world viticulturists and experts express scepticism regarding the direct translocation of flavour molecules from soil to grapes. They suggest that perceived minerality in wines might instead result from a lack of fruitiness or other factors.

Mechanisms of Terroir:

Plant Physiology and Environmental Interaction:

• The paper emphasises understanding plant physiology and the interaction of vines with their environment. Vines are described as 'environmental computers,' adapting their growth and reproductive strategies based on local conditions.
• Root growth and nutrient uptake are influenced by soil properties, with a focus on water supply and nutrient availability rather than direct soil-to-wine flavour transference.

Soil Properties and Terroir Effects:

Importance of Physical Properties:

• Experts argue that physical properties of soil, particularly those affecting water supply to vines, are more crucial for terroir effects than soil chemistry. Well-drained soils with appropriate water availability are considered ideal for expressing terroir.

Future Directions and Concluding Thoughts:

Prospects of Molecular Biology:

• Advances in understanding the molecular biology of grapes and the identification of genes influencing wine flavour could provide deeper insights into how different components of terroir affect specific biochemical pathways in grapes.
• The paper concludes by affirming the value of the terroir concept. While the direct link between soil and wine flavour may be tenuous, the focus on terroir and soil properties by winemakers contributes significantly to the production of the world's most compelling wines.

I understand winemaking is more art than science, but (unfortunately) I'm closer to a scientist than an artist at the time of this writing.

My original intention for this post was to develop a “scientific” framework¹ to understand the concept of “terroir” by examining the intricate relationship between a vine's physical environment and the resulting wine.

However, I'm thinking about changing the direction of the research. After reading about five (highly-cited) academic papers on this topic, I realised two things:

• I had picked a wrong branch of science for my research: I should have picked biology, not geology.²
• I will have to continue my research on this topic as long as I'm making wine.

I will write about the science of terroir whenever I come across an interesting article or paper.

But first, I'm going to look for an old article on the topic of terroir and examine how the concept was viewed back then, hopefully, without forcing any scientific lens.³

Below are the summaries of the two papers I found interesting as they point towards my current hypothesis: the transfer mechanism is us.⁴

I also found it fascinating that altitude affected the chemical compositions of wines more than precipitation or growing degree days. Further research on the altitude and/or the atmospheric pressure on the physiology of vines and winemaking process is warranted.

Here's the first paper: The Value of Soil Knowledge in Understanding Wine Terroir By Robert E. White from The School of Agriculture and Food, The University of Melbourne

Introduction:

• The concept of wine terroir encompasses natural, human, and historical factors.
• The focus of this paper is on natural factors, especially the interaction of the vine with its environment.
• Key natural factors include climate, soil, and vine cultivar.
• Soil properties play a crucial role in vine phenology and grape composition, influencing the sensory characteristics of wine.
• Terroir recognition is based on consistent wine sensory characteristics over time, integrating historical and human factors.

Concepts of Terroir:

• The Bordeaux school defines terroir as an ecophysiological concept linking wine's sensory characteristics to its geographical origin.
• Terroir appreciation varies among consumers, ranging from experienced tasters to casual drinkers.
• Numerous factors contribute to terroir, including climatic conditions, microclimate, cultivar, yield, topography, soil properties, and the ecogeopedological milieu.
• The scale of these factors varies, affecting the precision of terroir identification and the cost of analysis.
• Technological advancements enable the mapping of viticultural terroirs at various scales, aiding in viticultural management and adaptation to changes such as climate change.

Physicochemical Factors – Water, Nitrogen, and Temperature:

• Water supply, nitrogen availability, and soil temperature are primary soil determinants of terroir.
• Moderate soil water deficits, controlled nitrogen supply, and optimal soil temperature timings are crucial for high-quality wine production.
• Management practices, including deficit irrigation and vine training systems, are adjusted to optimise terroir expression.
• The combination of these factors varies among sites, grape varieties, and vintages, highlighting the uniqueness of each wine terroir.

Physicochemical Factors – Soil Nutrients:

• While no direct correlation between wine quality and soil nutrient content has been established, soil nutrient management is vital for vine health and wine quality.
• Variations in nutrient bioavailability, vine nutrient demand, and climate fluctuations complicate the quantification of soil property–terroir relationships.
• Advanced analytical techniques are used to explore the relationships between wine composition, soil, and parent rock composition.

Microbiological Factors:

• Microbial terroir is an emerging concept focusing on the unique soil microbiome and its impact on wine characteristics.
• Research on natural yeast populations, soil microbial communities, and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) explores their contributions to wine terroir.
• Advanced genetic-based techniques are used to study the soil microbiome's influence on fermentation and wine sensory properties.

Other Questions:

• The influence of vineyard management on site terroir and the independence of soil–terroir relationships from vintage variations are areas of ongoing research.
• Climate change poses challenges to traditional wine terroirs, necessitating adaptation in viticultural practices and potentially altering consumer preferences.

Conclusion:

• Quantitative relationships between soil properties, vine phenology, grape composition, and wine sensory characteristics are still being explored.
• Future research may enable the manipulation of the soil microbiome to enhance soil quality and wine terroir.
• Despite technological advancements, the definition of wine terroir continues to rely on historical tradition, sensory perceptions, and evolving consumer preferences.

And here's the second paper: Taste, terroir, and technology By Roger Pinder from International Journal of Wine

Complex Interplay of Terroir and Taste:

• Recognises the established connection between wine flavour and the specific vineyard environment (terroir).
• Highlights the historical debate and emerging clarity brought by advancements in “neuroenology” and wine chemistry.

In-depth Chemical Analysis:

• Utilised advanced techniques like gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and selected ion monitoring to analyse wine composition.
• Found direct correlations between specific chemical components in wine (e.g., α-terpinene, limonene, α-pinene, eugenol, 4-methylguaiacol) and flavour profiles.

Regional Sensory Distinctions:

• Identified clear sensory and chemical distinctions between Malbec wines from Mendoza, Argentina, and California, USA.
• Noted that regional differences were more pronounced than variations due to vineyard practices like rootstock, vine age, or trellising systems.

Influence of Altitude and Winery Processing:

• Determined that altitude played a significant role in the chemical composition of wines, more so than factors like precipitation or growing degree days.
• Acknowledged the impact of winery processing on the wine's chemical makeup, sometimes overlaying the terroir signature.

Perception and Flavour Creation:

• Explored the concept that wine flavour may not solely reside in the wine itself but is also created in the brain through complex sensory, cognitive, and emotional processes.
• Suggested that terroir might not only be a physical phenomenon but also a perceptual experience, influenced by anticipation, sensory analysis, and post-ingestion effects.

Conclusion and Future Directions:

Concludes that the notion of terroir involves both tangible factors (soil, climate, altitude) and intangible aspects (perception, processing methods).

Notes:

1: As I'm proofreading my post, I feel what I mean by “scientific” is actually quantitative. 2: I was too linear in my thinking when linking the soil and the grape in my mind. 1 – 0 to Mother Nature. 3: That's going to be Part II. 4: I need to fine tune my hypothesis but I think we are the conduit for translating the environment to the grape (by influencing two fundamental factors: sunlight and access to water.)

One of topics in viticulture that took me way longer to understand than I care to admit is the bud development in vines. And the very problem getting in my way of understanding was, of course, myself.¹ I simply could not fathom, even at a conceptual level, that a plant could plan its reproduction in a multi-year cycle. But vines very well can and they do.

Here's the ELI5 notes to myself.

Imagine a grapevine is like a tiny factory that takes two years to make grapes, and it keeps repeating this process every year.

First Summer – Starting the Journey: The grapevine begins by preparing tiny buds in the axils, where the leaf stem attaches to the main stem. Inside these buds are parts called SAMs (shoot apical meristems), like little artists who can create leaves, flowers, or tendrils (the curly parts that help the vine climb).

Early Spring – Waking Up: When spring comes the next year, the vine wakes up these tiny buds. They start growing out from where they were formed, in the axils.

Late Spring – Making Choices: By late spring, the SAMs in these buds have to decide whether to keep making leaves and tendrils or start working on flowers. This decision depends on how much light the buds get in their axil locations.

Gibberellins – The Decision Makers: Gibberellins, acting like messengers, tell the SAMs what to create. In shady places, gibberellins encourage the vine to grow longer and make more tendrils instead of flowers.

The Next Spring – Final Steps: In the second spring, the buds, still in the axils, are ready to turn into flowers or tendrils.

Flowering Time – Creating Grapes: If the weather is warm and nice, these flowers (in the axils) can pollinate themselves (since they have both male and female parts), and that's how grapes are made.

Cycle Continues – New Buds Form: After the grapes, the vine starts preparing new buds in the axils again, beginning the whole process over for the next year.

This whole process takes two years for one cycle of grape production, and then it starts all over again for the next cycle. The vine prepares for flowers in one summer, but the actual flowers only show up in the spring of the next year, and then new buds begin forming for the next cycle.

Note(s):

1: I simply assumed without even questioning myself that all cycles in nature have cycle lengths of at most one year. I just could not believe an organism could incorporate two years of uncertainty into its reproduction cycle.² 2: It all began to make sense when I realised grape vines are perennial plants and would always be growing and venturing out to all kinds of directions in the wild. The image of grape vine that I had, the one of Guyot or Cordon trained vine at vineyards, is, in fact, unnatural!

_{Ricotta August 2023}

I dreamt of enjoying the Tuscan sunrises and sunsets with my dearest Ricotta, but the Universe had a different plan for her. The emptiness in my heart is still filled with indescribable sadness, but I must trust it is to be followed by gratitude.

I dedicate my journey of becoming a winemaker to Ricotta. She would have been happy to know that next summer, I will be learning from my favourite winemaker in the world.

May her soul rest in peace.

I am beyond excited to be doing my first harvest in Burgundy. Words cannot express how grateful I am for this opportunity.

Let's get to know the region in advance so I can enjoy the harvest to the fullest extent.

1. Overview

Location: Burgundy is located in the east-central part of France. It stretches from Dijon in the north to Mâcon in the south. It's a relatively narrow strip of land, running almost in a north-south direction.

Climate: Burgundy has a semi-continental climate. This means it can experience cold winters and hot summers. The weather can be unpredictable, which sometimes makes grape growing challenging. The vintage variation (the year-to-year differences) can be substantial because of this.

Significance: Burgundy, along with Bordeaux, is one of the most renowned wine-producing regions in France. Unlike Bordeaux, which is dominated by estate châteaux, Burgundy's wine production is more fragmented, with many small growers owning tiny plots of vineyards.

2. Historical Significance of Wine Production in Burgundy:

Roman Era: The history of Burgundy wine dates back to Roman times. The Romans introduced viticulture to the region, and some of the first written records about Burgundy vineyards come from this era.

Monastic Influence: The monasteries, especially the Cistercians and Cluniacs, played a vital role in developing viticulture and viniculture in Burgundy during the Middle Ages. They meticulously documented vineyard boundaries, grape-growing techniques, and the quality of wines produced. Much of our understanding of the region's “terroir” can be traced back to their observations.

Duke of Burgundy: In the medieval period, the Dukes of Burgundy promoted wine production and trade. They passed several regulations to ensure the quality of the wines.

French Revolution: The French Revolution significantly impacted land ownership in Burgundy. Much of the vineyard land owned by the church and nobility was sold, leading to the fragmentation of vineyards. This fragmentation is still evident today, with many small growers owning just a few rows of vines in prestigious vineyards.

Phylloxera Crisis: In the late 19th century, the phylloxera insect devastated many of Burgundy's vineyards. However, the crisis also led to opportunities, as growers had to replant vineyards, often with better vine stock and a better understanding of the terroir.

Modern Era: Burgundy's reputation has grown in the 20th and 21st centuries, with its wines being some of the most sought-after (and expensive) in the world. There's been a significant emphasis on understanding the nuances of terroir, leading to wines that are deeply expressive of their origins.

3. Pinot Noir & Chardonnay

Burgundy mostly makes wines from two grapes: Pinot Noir for red wine and Chardonnay for white wine. They do use other grapes like Aligoté, Pinot Gris, Gamay, and Sauvignon Blanc, but they're not the main ones.

For the winemakers in Burgundy, this area is special because it's where these grapes originally come from. They believe the terroir here brings out the best flavours in these grapes.

4. Terroir of Burgundy

4.1 Soil Composition:

The soils of Burgundy are diverse but are chiefly derived from Jurassic limestones and marls. The soil can be roughly divided into:

• Limestone: Gives minerality to the wine and provides excellent drainage.
• Marl: A mix of clay and limestone, offering richness and structure to the wine.
• Clay: Contributes to the robustness and fruitiness of the wines.

4.2 Climate:

Burgundy has a semi-continental climate. Winters are cold, and summers are warm but not excessively so. This climate ensures a long growing season, which is crucial for Pinot Noir and Chardonnay to develop their complex flavours.

4.3 Topography:

The region's vineyards are mostly hillside plantings, with the best vineyards (often Grand Cru) situated mid-slope, where drainage is optimal and sunlight exposure is maximized.

5. Terroir of the Sub-Regions

5.1 Chablis:

Soil: Chablis' soils are unique in Burgundy. They are primarily Kimmeridgian limestone, which is packed with ancient marine fossils. This soil lends the wines their distinct minerality.

Climate: Being further north, Chablis has a cooler climate, which brings out the crisp acidity in its Chardonnays.

5.2 Côte de Nuits:

Soil: Predominantly limestone with variations in marl content. The presence of iron in some parts gives the wines a distinct character.

Climate: The region experiences cool winds from the north, which can influence the ripening process, leading to varied expressions of Pinot Noir.

5.3 Côte de Beaune:

Soil: The northern part, near Pommard, has more clay, lending a fuller structure to the wines. As you move south, especially around Puligny-Montrachet and Chassagne-Montrachet, the soil contains more limestone, which gives elegance and minerality to the Chardonnays.

Climate: Slightly warmer than the Côte de Nuits, this region often sees earlier harvests.

5.4 Côte Chalonnaise:

Soil: Varies widely, with a mix of limestone, clay, and some granitic areas. The diversity can lead to varied wine styles even within the same village.

Climate: This region has a more variable climate, with the potential for both warmer and cooler pockets, leading to a broader range of wine styles.

5.5 Mâconnais:

Soil: In the north, it's limestone-heavy, while moving south, there's a gradual shift to more granite-based soils, especially around the Saint-Véran and Pouilly-Fuissé areas.

Climate: Being further south, Mâconnais experiences warmer temperatures, which can lead to riper and fuller expressions of Chardonnay.

6. Classification System

There are over 100 “appellations,” or approved wine growing areas, which are then divided into four tiers of quality.

Grand Cru: These are wines from the top plots called climats, believed to produce the best wines of Burgundy. These wines account for about 1% of the total production volume.

Premier Cru: A step below Grand Cru, but these vineyards still produce exceptional wines with unique characteristics. These wines account for about 10% of the total production volume.

Village wines: These wines come from vineyards that are not classified as Grand Cru or Premier Cru but are still within one of Burgundy's well-known wine-producing villages. These wines account for about 37% of the total production volume.

Regional wines: These are wines that can come from anywhere in Burgundy and often represent more generic, everyday drinking wines. These wines account for about 52% of the total production volume.

7. Sub-regions

7.1 Chablis:

Main Wine Color: White (100% Chardonnay)

• Chablis Grand Cru AOC: White
  • Blanchot
  • Bougros
  • Les Clos
  • Grenouilles
  • Preuses
  • Valmur
  • Vaudésir
• Chablis Premier Cru AOC: White
• Chablis AOC: White
• Petit Chablis AOC: White

7.2 Côte de Nuits:

Mainly red wines, with a few exceptions.

Gevrey-Chambertin: Predominantly Red. Top AOC is Grand Cru.

• Grand Crus: Red
  • Chambertin
  • Chambertin-Clos de Bèze
  • Chapelle-Chambertin
  • Charmes-Chambertin
  • Griotte-Chambertin
  • Latricières-Chambertin
  • Mazy-Chambertin
  • Ruchottes-Chambertin

Morey-Saint-Denis: Mainly Red. Top AOC is Grand Cru.

• Grand Crus: Red
  • Clos de la Roche
  • Clos Saint-Denis
  • Clos de Lambrays
  • Clos des Ruchottes
  • Bonnes-Mares (shared with Chambolle-Musigny)

Chambolle-Musigny: Mostly Red. Top AOC is Grand Cru.

• Grand Crus:
  • Musigny (Red and a small amount of White)
  • Bonnes-Mares (shared with Morey-Saint-Denis)

Vougeot: Red. Top AOC is Grand Cru.

• Grand Cru: Red
  • Clos Vougeot

Vosne-Romanée: Primarily Red. Top AOC is Grand Cru.

• Grand Crus: Red
  • Romanée-Conti
  • La Tâche
  • Richebourg
  • Romanée-Saint-Vivant
  • Grands Échezeaux
  • Échezeaux

Nuits-Saint-Georges: Predominantly Red. Top AOC is Premier Cru.

Fixin: Predominantly Red. Top AOC is Premier Cru.

7.3 Côte de Beaune

Both red and white wines, with significant emphasis on whites for certain villages.

Aloxe-Corton: Both colours, depending on the specific AOC. Top AOC is Grand Cru.

• Grand Crus:
  • Corton (Red and White)
  • Corton-Charlemagne (White)

Pommard: Red. Top AOC is Premier Cru. Volnay: Red. Top AOC is Premier Cru. Saint-Aubin: Predominatly white. Top AOC is Premier Cru. Meursault: White. Top AOC is Premier Cru.

Puligny-Montrachet: White. Top AOC is Grand Cru.

• Grand Crus:
  • Montrachet (shared with Chassagne-Montrachet)
  • Bâtard-Montrachet (shared with Chassagne-Montrachet)
  • Chevalier-Montrachet
  • Bienvenues-Bâtard-Montrachet

Chassagne-Montrachet: Both, but widely recognized for its whites. Top AOC is Grand Cru.

• Grand Crus: White
  • Montrachet (shared with Puligny-Montrachet)
  • Bâtard-Montrachet (shared with Puligny-Montrachet)
  • Criots-Bâtard-Montrachet

Savigny-Lès-Beaune: Predominatly red. Top AOC is Premier Cru. Pernand-Vergelesses: Both red and white. Top AOC is Premier Cru. Ladoix: More red than white. Top AOC is Premier Cru. Maranges: Almost entirely red. Top AOC is Premier Cru. Auxey-Duresses: More red than white. Top AOC is Premier Cru. Santenay: Mostly red. Top AOC is Premier Cru.

7.4 Côte Chalonnaise

Both red and white, varying by village.

Rully: Both red and white. Top AOC is Premier Cru. Mercurey: Primarily Red. Top AOC is Premier Cru. Givry: Primarily Red. Top AOC is Premier Cru. Montagny: Predominantly White. Top AOC is Premier Cru.

7.5 Mâconnais

Mainly white wines.

Pouilly-Fuissé: White. Top AOC is Village. Pouilly-Loché: White. Top AOC is Village. Pouilly-Vinzelles: White. Top AOC is Regional. Saint-Véran: White. Top AOC is Village. Mâcon + Village Name (e.g., Mâcon-Uchizy): Mostly white, though some reds (from Gamay or Pinot Noir) and rosés can be found.

_{My sunflower(s).}

I've been growing sunflowers on my balcony, which has been both rewarding and brought unexpected joy to my life. I also noticed that a) these plants are seriously thirsty, and b) there is a definitive positive correlation between water supply and growth.

Now that I'm entering a world where irrigation is not allowed, I got curious about the old saying that vines that struggle produce better grapes.

I found the following four papers on the relationship between water deficit and berry compositions. _{Please note that the research was conducted in the US (and Greece) with Cabernet Sauvignon (and chardonnay).}

Research Papers

Paper #1

_{(Click here for the paper.)}

Objective: Investigate the effects of water stress on Cabernet Sauvignon grapevine at different phenological stages.

Key Insights:

• Water stress impacts berry growth, CO2 exchange rate, and leaf area.
  • Explanined: These are ways to describe how grapevines are growing. Less water can slow down how quickly the grapes grow, change how the plants breathe (CO2 exchange), and affect the size and number of leaves. These changes can alter how the grapes develop
• Water stress improved berry composition when applied in a specific sequence (no stress from anthesis to fruit set, mild stress from fruit set to veraison, moderate to severe stress post veraison).
  • Explanined: These are different stages of grape development:
    • Anthesis to Fruit Set: When flowers turn into tiny grapes.
    • Fruit Set to Veraison: When those tiny grapes grow and mature.
    • Veraison to Harvest: When the grapes change colour and get ready to be picked.
• The relationship between berry composition and vine water status varied depending on the stage and parameter measured.

Conclusion in plain English: Watering the grapevines less at specific times can make the grapes better for winemaking. If you water them fully as they start to grow, then cut back a little, then cut back even more as they ripen, it can make the grapes taste and look better in the wine. But the exact effect can vary depending on the timing and what you're trying to achieve with the wine.

Paper #2

_{(Click here for the paper.)}

Objective: Analyse the global effects of water deficit on the metabolic pathways of Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay grapes.

Key Insights:

• Water deficit affected various metabolic pathways differently depending on the grape cultivar.
• In Cabernet Sauvignon, water deficit increased anthocyanin concentrations and activated glutamate and proline biosynthesis.
  • Explanined:
    • Anthocyanins help to give red wines their colour. Less water makes the colour of Cabernet Sauvignon deeper or more intense.
    • Activated Glutamate and Proline Biosynthesis in Cabernet in the grape can affect the taste, making it richer or more complex.
• In Chardonnay, it increased concentrations of antheraxanthin, flavonols, and aroma volatiles.
  • Explanined: These are compounds that can change the colour, flavour, and smell of Chardonnay. Less water might make the wine more aromatic and flavorful
• Water deficit also doubled ABA concentrations in Cabernet Sauvignon but decreased ABA in Chardonnay, affecting berry flavour and quality characteristics.
  • Explanined: ABA is a compound that affects how the grapes ripen. More of it in Cabernet Sauvignon and less in Chardonnay due to water deficit can lead to differences in flavour and quality.

Here's an interesting graph chart from the paper:

The effects of water deficit on various grape vine and berry parameters over time.

_{A) stem water potential, B) berry diameter, C) berry soluble solids, D) berry titratable acidity.}

_{Vertical magenta and green dotted lines mark the boundaries for véraison for Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay, respectively. Arrows mark sampling dates for molecular analyses.}

_{Symbols represent means ± SE; n = 6. CH = Chardonnay, CS = Cabernet Sauvignon, WW = well watered, WD = water deficit.}

Conclusion in plain English: Giving less water to grapevines can affect different types of grapes in various ways. For Cabernet Sauvignon (a red wine grape), less water might make the colour richer and the taste more complex. For Chardonnay (a white wine grape), it might lead to more aroma and flavour. It's not a one-size-fits-all approach; the effects depend on the type of grape and what the winemaker wants to achieve. By managing the water carefully, winemakers can bring out specific qualities in different wines.

Paper #3

_{(Click here for the paper.)}

Objective: Investigate the effects of vineyard location and water status on the grape and wine composition of Agiorgitiko in southern Greece.

Key Insights:

• Water deficit accelerated sugar accumulation, malic acid breakdown and beneficially affected the concentration of anthocyanins and total phenolics in berry skins.
  • Explanined:
    • Less water causes the grapes to have more sugar more quickly. More sugar can mean more potential alcohol and a sweeter taste in the final wine.
    • Malic acid is one of the acids in grapes that give the wine its tart taste. Less water leads to less malic acid, so the wine might taste less sharp or tangy.
    • Anthocyanins are the compounds that give red wine its colour, and phenolics can influence the taste and mouthfeel. Less water can lead to more of these, meaning a deeper colour and possibly a richer taste.
• Water stress increased glycoconjugates of aromatic components, and wines from stressed vineyards were preferred in tasting trials.
  • Explanined: This refers to changes in the aroma compounds in the grapes. Less water seems to make certain aromas in the wine more intense or noticeable.

Conclusion in plain English: Cutting back on the water that grapevines get (water deficit) can make the grapes ripen in a way that often produces better wine. The grapes get sweeter faster, there's less of a sharp, tart taste, the color may be deeper, and some aromas may be more intense. People even preferred these wines in taste tests. It's a technique that can be used to bring out certain desirable qualities in wine.

Paper #4

_{(Click here for the paper.)}

Objective: Understand the effects of early (ED) and late (LD) season water deficits on Vitis vinifera “Cabernet Sauvignon” gene expression and flavonoid biosynthesis.

Key Insights:

• Both ED and LD increased anthocyanin accumulation after veraison by enhancing the expression of genes controlling anthocyanin biosynthesis.
  • Explanined: Anthocyanin Accumulation after Veraison: Anthocyanins are pigments that give red wine its colour. Veraison is the stage of grape ripening where the grapes soften and begin to gain colour. Increasing anthocyanin accumulation means the grapes will have a deeper colour.
• ED accelerated sugar accumulation and the onset of anthocyanin synthesis. Increases in anthocyanins were predominantly in the 3'4'5'-hydroxylated forms, with limited effects on other flavonols or proanthocyanidins.
  • Explanined:
    • Giving less water early on makes the grapes gain sugar faster and start producing colour earlier. This can result in wines with a richer taste and deeper colour.
    • 3'4'5'-hydroxylated refers to specific types of anthocyanins that affect colour. It means the particular way the colour changes due to water deficit leads to a specific shade or intensity of red.
    • Flavonols and proanthocyanidins are other compounds in grapes that affect flavour and colour, but they are not influenced much by water deficit in this context.

Conclusion in plain English: When grapevines experience certain conditions like water stress, it changes the types of colour compounds (anthocyanins) in the grapes. This means the grapes can develop a richer and more complex colour. The changes mostly happen in one specific type of these colour compounds, without much effect on other related compounds (flavonols or proanthocyanidins) that might affect things like taste or mouthfeel.

When rain might be good or bad

If we cannot irrigate, the only source of water is from the sky.

When Rain is Good:

• Anthesis to Fruit Set: Adequate rainfall during this early stage can support berry growth and the development of anthocyanins and polyphenols, which are essential for wine quality.
• Before Veraison: Mild water stress has been found to be beneficial, so a balance between rain and dry periods might be optimal during this phase to induce mild stress conditions.
• During Drought Years or in Naturally Dry Regions: Rain can be beneficial to prevent excessive water stress that might otherwise negatively impact vine growth, CO2 exchange rate, and leaf area.

When Rain Might be Bad:

• Fruit Set to Veraison: Excessive rainfall leading to a lack of water stress during this stage might hinder the beneficial effects observed with mild water stress on berry composition.
• Veraison to Harvest: Rain near or during harvest might dilute berry composition and negatively affect the concentration of sugars and other flavour compounds. It could also promote disease, affecting grape quality.
• Post-harvest: Excessive rain after harvest could lead to issues related to vine recovery, nutrient leaching, and preparation for the next growing season.

Conclusion

These papers show that water – how much or little of it the grapevines get – plays a big role in the taste, colour, and smell of the grapes. By understanding this, farmers and winemakers can grow grapes that make better wine. Different grapes respond differently to water, so the right approach depends on the type of grape and what kind of wine is being made. In places where farmers can't water their vines, these insights can still help them use the natural rain to their advantage.

BD 500, or Horn Manure (500), sounds like some kind of an energy drink, but it is essentially fermented cow dung buried underground and later unearthed. It is the basis for soil fertility and the renewal of degraded soils in biodynamic viticulture.

BD 500 is typically prepared and buried in Sep/Oct and lifted in Feb/March. (I need to check if this is the case in Europe.)

Materials

• Cow horns
• Fresh cow dung from a lactating cow. Average 50-150 grams of dung per horn (but depends on horn size)

Preparation process

• Feed cattle with high-quality food for two days before collecting dung for BD 500
• Prepare burial pit: 18 inches deep. The pit area should not be subject to flooding, vigorous root systems or earthworms.
  • BD 500 takes the character of the soil it is buried in, so good quality earth in the burial pit is essential.
• Collect cow horns – remove any paint.
• Collect fresh dung – reasonably firm.
• Fill cow horns with cow dung in Sept/Oct
• Place horns in burial pit, 1 inch apart with base downwards, surround with 50% compost and soil.
• Cover with soil and bury for 4 to 6 months. If the soil is not rich enough, add compost to an extent of 50% to enhance soil quality.
• Keep burial pit soil moist and shaded, and free from weeds and earthworms.
• After 4 months, check for dung fermentation. Dig up one horn. They are ready to be lifted if the green cow dung has turned into a dark, smooth, earthy smelling humus (BD 500).
• Remove the BD 500, use and store. If not, leave them longer.

Application process

• Apply when the dew is falling (the earth breathes in) i.e. late afternoon or evening
• 25 grams of BD 500/acre in 15 litres rain/pure warm water (approx. 15-20 °C)
• Check water for high calcium, iron or other minerals
• Stir for 1 hour alternately clockwise and anti-clockwise, forming a vortex
• Spray in the late afternoon or evening (just before sunset), when Moon is descending
• Spray 4 times a year

Storage

• Place in glazed earthenware pots with loose-fitting lids.
• Bury in a box surrounded with coir pith, which is kept moist and can be closed.
• Keep in dark and at temp of not more than 25 °C.
• Use within 1 year.

Typical Mistakes?

• Wrong Quantity: Too much or too little of BD 500 can lead to a Goldilocks dilemma.
• Bad Timing: Spraying during the heat of the day? Nope.
• Inconsistent Stirring: Remember, vigorous stirring for an hour. No shortcuts.

Commonly Shared Tips?

• Stirring Technique: Alternate between clockwise and counter-clockwise stirring.
• Monitor Weather: Avoid spraying if rain is forecast within 48 hours.
• Follow the Calendar: Biodynamic calendars are like winemaking horoscopes, so pay attention.

Hugely important and wildly variable central Italian variety with many a name and surprising origins.

Origins and Parentage

Earliest Mention: Sangiovese's first mention was in Giovan Vettorio Soderini's 1600 treatise, referred to as Sangiogheto. A legend also ties the name to “Jupiter's blood.”

True Origin: Despite Tuscany being considered its origin, DNA analysis revealed Sangiovese as a natural cross between CILIEGIOLO and CALABRESE DI MONTENUOVO.

Surprising Discovery: CALABRESE DI MONTENUOVO's identification was a big surprise, and evidence points to a Calabrian origin.

Additional Historical Cultivation: DNA profiling discovered Sangiovese's cultivation under various local names in southern Italy.

Progenies: DNA analysis also uncovered several progenies in southern Italy, such as FRAPPATO, GAGLIOPPO, and NERELLO MASCALESE.

Possible Southern Italian Origin: Both CALABRESE DI MONTENUOVO and possibly Sangiovese are likely of southern Italian origin. From there, Sangiovese spread to Tuscany, Corse, and beyond.

Clonal Diversity

Polyclonal Origin: Sangiovese has a complex origin with significant biodiversity, and several distinct varieties are cultivated under its name.

Two Groups: Traditionally divided into Sangiovese Grosso (including Brunello, Prugnolo Gentile) and Sangiovese Piccolo, but this distinction is challenged by recent findings.

Quality Distinction: The notion that superior quality resides in the Grosso family has been refuted. Significant efforts are now directed towards identifying and propagating superior clones rather than focusing on yield.

Other Hypotheses

Etruscan Connection: Some believe Sangiovese was cultivated by the Etruscans and domesticated from wild grapes in Toscana. However, research has failed to identify a genetic link between Sangiovese and wild Tuscan grapes.

CILIEGIOLO Cross Theory: A suggestion was made that CILIEGIOLO is a cross between Sangiovese and Muscat Rouge de Madère, which might itself be a cross between MAMMOLO and MUSCAT BLANC À PETITS GRAINS. This theory is highly disputed due to:

• Muscat Rouge de Madère's supposed Portuguese origin and lack of cultivation history in Italy.
• Absence of the typical Muscat flavor in CILIEGIOLO.
• Contradiction with the discovered cross between Ciliegiolo and CALABRESE DI MONTENUOVO, strongly supported by DNA evidence.

New Parentage Proposal: A recent study suggests another parentage for Sangiovese, stating it is a natural cross between CILIEGIOLO and Negrodolce, an old Puglian variety. This theory claims to present strong evidence for a southern Italian origin for Sangiovese. However, doubts arise as the DNA profile of Negrodolce is found to be identical to Morellino del Valdarno, a Tuscan variety with an already established parent-offspring relationship with Sangiovese.

Viticultural Characteristics

Vigor: Sangiovese is vigorous and highly susceptible to botrytis bunch rot due to its thin skins. Ripening: It is slow and late in ripening. Drought Resistance: It is resistant to drought and produces a relatively high yield.

Where it's Grown and What its Wine Tastes Like:

• Corsica, France: Known as Nielluccio, it's widely planted and highly regarded, especially in the Patrimonio region. The wines are tannic but age-worthy.
• Languedoc, France: Interest in Sangiovese is growing due to its drought resistance and reliable yields.
• Italy: It is the most widely planted variety, especially in regions like Toscana, Emilia-Romagna, the Marche, and Umbria. Famous for Chiantis and Brunello di Montalcino, the quality is highly variable, depending on clones, location, and yield. Some producers focus on local expressions, resulting in a re-evaluation of Chianti Classico and other all-Sangiovese wines.
• Other European Countries: Found in Switzerland, Malta, Turkey, Greece, and Israel.
• USA: In California, there was a significant decline in planting since a peak in 2003, but there are still notable producers. In Washington State, the bright fruit quality suits Sangiovese.
• Canada: Experimental plantings in Ontario and British Columbia.
• South America: Present in Argentina, Chile, and Brazil. Australia: Though a late arrival and initially producing inconsistent results, there is an improvement in Sangiovese wines with a selection of clones available.
• New Zealand: Limited enthusiasm, with only a few producers. South Africa: Limited plantings, but some producers are making varietals and blends.

Flavor Profile

• Sangiovese wines can offer alluring aromas of plums and dried underbrush when fully ripe. Less ripe or less carefully made versions may exhibit farmyard aromas.
• It is known for elegant and forceful aromas, especially when grown in the presence of limestone. The grape adapts well to various soils.
• Fine varietal examples exist in many regions, though early plantings in the '60s to '80s resulted in wines lacking body and color, with considerable acid and astringency.
• It is used as the principal or essential vine variety in many famous Italian red wines and blends, often with international varieties.

Overall, Sangiovese's appeal lies in its diverse expressions across various regions and terroirs, with a particular stronghold in Italy. Its adaptability to different soils and climates has allowed for experimentation and planting worldwide, though quality and consistency may vary.

(Notes coming soon...)